The Beat Generation and on the Road Essay Example for Free

The Beat Generation and on the Road Essay Violence and Crime is rising at a steady rate, but when did America inherit its lack of safety for the average person? The answer is from the â€Å"beat† generation. Depressed and hurt from World War Two and The Great Depression the â€Å"beat† generation sparked a downfall into theft, drug and alcohol abuse, and irresponsible sex. During the late nineteen forties and early nineteen fifties it was not uncommon to see people hitchhiking on the side of the road and getting picked up. This was a time when people considered the United States of America to be safe and the average person could walk the streets without worrying about being robbed, raped or murdered. Today it is uncommon to find someone who knowingly allows their adolescent children to hitchhike across the country or sometime even walk to school on their own. The modern-day citizens of the United States of America lock their cars, their homes and even put their children on leashes. These safety precautions would seem ridiculous and silly to those born before the nineteen sixties. This over-zealous amount of safety and security can all be blamed on those who have abused the good and innocent nature that Americans have previously displayed. The beat generation stole and lied at such an increasing rate that present-day Americans must be cautious of each other and live in fear of the most despicable crimes. In the novel, On the Road by Jack Kerouac, the protagonists steal, lie and get high to fill the empty spaces in their schedule and to sooth the pains in their souls. It is through these actions that security develops and these malevolent ideas are exchanged to the youth that is living under this broke and battered generation. The beat generation, hurt by world war two, lost the trust for the average American citizen by stealing, abusing drugs and alcohol and creating broken families. The greed for others belonging and the lack of availability of wealth in the world has tempted all to steal and lie to gain for themselves. In the novel, On the Road, the protagonists are seen stealing gas, cigarettes and even cars. Dean, the narrator’s long-time friend has literally grown up on the wrong side of the tracks. His father being a bum and a drunk helped him learn how to steal and survive the cruel world that the homeless live in. â€Å"We stopped at a gas station, and there Dean and Marylou played piggyback around the tanks and Dunkel went inside and stole three packs of cigarettes without trying. We were fresh out† (Kerouac 139). Dunkel, another homeless hitchhiker is picked up by Dean, Sal and Marylou. He effortlessly steals cigarettes for them, displaying another act of theft by a homeless person. This act of theft shows the reader the lack of morality of the vagabonds in America. When any of the protagonists are confronted by the police it is at a moment in the novel when they are not breaking the law. â€Å"We had to follow the patrolman back to the station and there spent an hour waiting in the grass while they telephoned Chicago to get the owner of the Cadillac to verify our position as hired drivers. Mr. Baron said, according to the cop, ‘Yes, that is my car, but I can’t vouch for anything else those boys might have done. ’†¦Everything was straightened out and we roared on† (Kerouac 236) It is very lucky for Dean and Sal to never get into actual trouble with the cops when they are stopped by them, because they steal so much that with the modern day security system and police they would be instantly caught and hauled off to prison. It is with this lack of morality and their never-ending desires and addictions that the protagonists continue their travels, stealing and doping back and forth across America. Along with the sins of theft comes the crime of drug and alcohol abuse. Throughout the novel the protagonists drink heavily and experiment with marijuana, and Benzedrine. When the group of irresponsible citizens travels to Louisiana to visit Bull Lee they slowly damage their livers with Benzedrine. Bull Lee represents the â€Å"teacher† of the group, the one from whom they have learned their ways of life. It is to no surprise of the reader that Bull Lee is constantly strung out on Benzedrine. â€Å"That night Marylou took everything in the books; she took tea, goofballs, benny, and liquor and even asked Old Bull for a shot of M, which of course he didn’t give her; he gave her a martini. She was so saturated with elements of all kinds that she came to a standstill and stood goofy on the porch with me† (Kerouac 147-148). It is apparent that all of the protagonists abuse drugs and alcohol. This shows their need to get away from the world and leave their lives behind. Like the road, and hitchhiking, drugs help them run from their problems so that they can find happiness. This novel present’s drug and alcohol abuse as a very apparent trend in society. Because of World War Two the people of America have seen many gruesome and horrible sights, and therefore they find the need to distance themselves from society as a whole, so that they can numb the pain from their losses. It was believed for a long time that Kerouac wrote the novel On the Road while taking Benzedrine for the euphoric and creative feeling that it gave him. â€Å"For decades, in countless publications, Kerouac’s nineteen fifty-one typing session has been described as ‘Benzedrine-fueled’ and ‘Benzedrine –drenched’ and so on. This is not the likely case. In a private letter, Kerouac corrected Ginsberg when, years later, he wrote an article for Village Voice saying that Benzedrine boosted Kerouac’s typing feat. Kerouac told Ginsberg in definite terms that ‘Road was not written on benny, on coffee’ (Jack Kerouac Letter to Allen Ginsberg 184)† (Theado 15). It is not unreasonable for those to have questioned Kerouac’s sobriety during the times that he wrote On the Road. It is from this generation that we have learned that one can get high on simple prescription medicine. Along with the drugs the acts of theft can even be considered one of the ways that the protagonists create artificial euphoria for themselves. â€Å"†¦while they might steal to support their drug habits, for example, Dean ‘Stole cars for joyrides’ (Kerouac 10). The phrase â€Å"joy ride† must be understood quite literally as an experience of joy, and joy-spontaneous and unmanageable- seemed to be in scarce supply in the sad world Sal describes†(Holton 23). This sadness in the world that Sal describes, can, in their eyes, only be cured through frivolity, and mischief. Causing mayhem seems to be one of the few ways the characters in the novel can create happiness for themselves. Breaking the law makes them happy and due to this life of recklessness and law breaking, promiscuity and broken families are developed. Throughout the novel Dean and Sal sleep with many women, to satisfy their desire for feelings of euphoria. Dean is found at the end of the novel in his third marriage and having four children. Although Dean loves his children it is not enough for him to stay married to the mother of his children. Dean could not find happiness in his past marriage because he constantly feels the need to be free and unattached from the real world. This could easily be because of him being brought up in a broken family. This shows that because of peoples past lack of creating stable, conventional families, has developed an age where it is more uncommon to find a family where the husband and wife have only been married to each other. It is made clear that all of those around Dean find him irresponsible and even idiotic. Galatea brings this up to Dean by saying:†You have absolutely no regard for anybody but yourself and your damned kicks. All you think about is what’s hanging between your legs and how much money you can get out of people and then you just throw them aside†(Kerouac 194). It is most obvious that Dean is careless and reckless. This is represented by his indecency to not stay with his children and not support them until he is required, by law, to do so. His lack of stability in female acquaintances upsets his friends to the point of them not seeing him in any respected way. â€Å"Dean’s liaison with a third wife is in effect a double betrayal, a double failure. It is a betrayal of his comradely marriage to Sal, and a betrayal of the freedom of action and movement that goes with ’IT’† (Hunt 51). Dean’s promiscuity is commonly seen today, and is regarded as dangerous because of the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections. This spread of STI’s could even possibly be from the beat generation’s incredible sexual deviance. As time progresses life can only get harder for everyone because of the previous generation’s irresponsibility and carelessness. One would argue that it is irresponsible to blame anyone for society’s faults and dangers. As the human race progresses, so does its troubles. It is impossible to blame one generation for all of the troubles in America, but it is clear that the crime rate jumped after World War Two with the xplanation that breaking the law was the only way for people to find euphoria. Drug abuse and theft were, for the most part, under-the-rug subjects and not expected of the average person. Society has quickly learned that anyone can be a criminal and that it is better to be precautious of the worst crimes than to be left stunned and helpless from being too naive and trusting all. Today, The United States of America is plagued with criminals and offenders of the law so that the people have covered the country with security cameras, technological safety precautions and locked doors. The people of The United States of America have learned the hard way, to not trust their neighbors from the actions of the beat generation. It also was very unheard of to have a non-conventional family before the nineteen fifties. The divorce rate is at an all-time high, and it is because of the poor actions that people make with those around them. This was all sparked by the beat generation’s lustful relationships and impromptu marriages. The rise in promiscuity and the lack of desire to be responsible with sex post-World War Two gave the idea that it is ok to not be conventional to the future generations of America. Human beings learn from those around them, and it is not uncommon to find trends in vices through different generations in families. One’s poor decision, witnessed by youth, will likely be reflected in the future by the youth. It is with the knowledge that one’s present actions will affect the future of those around him or her that one should gain responsibility for the future. It is without a doubt that society in the United States of America has drastically changed since World War Two and even more so with the creation of the internet in the nineteen eighties. The beat generation has given society the burden of lack of trust. Through the actions of many, American society has gained the knowledge that any one person can be a criminal. Due to the abuse of drugs, and alcohol from the beat generation, it is not uncommon to find addicts and junkies throughout the streets. Society is not naive anymore to the abuse of prescription drugs and inhalers. Medicines that have helped many have been removed from modern medical practice because of those who abused them for euphoric experiences. Families are now commonly seen with variations in relations between siblings and without a traditional set of two parents. The divorce rate in The United States of America has increased to a magnanimous height. Promiscuous images are frequently seen on the television, in magazines, and on the internet. Children have grown to be unaffected by gruesome and sexual images. It is undeniable that stealing is looked down upon by many, but in the present United States of America, the children are no strangers to shoplifting. Society in America is losing its morality as time goes on. It is due to the inappropriate actions of past generations that the citizens of The United States of America have increased their security and distrust in people as a whole. The beat generation, especially, has disturbed the minds of the American people with its anarchist movements. One should ask him or herself why society is being constantly watched through security cameras, and why it is so hard to find a traditionally structured family, and why it is now dangerous to hitchhike.

The Beat Generation and on the Road Essay Example for Free

The Beat Generation and on the Road Essay Violence and Crime is rising at a steady rate, but when did America inherit its lack of safety for the average person? The answer is from the â€Å"beat† generation. Depressed and hurt from World War Two and The Great Depression the â€Å"beat† generation sparked a downfall into theft, drug and alcohol abuse, and irresponsible sex. During the late nineteen forties and early nineteen fifties it was not uncommon to see people hitchhiking on the side of the road and getting picked up. This was a time when people considered the United States of America to be safe and the average person could walk the streets without worrying about being robbed, raped or murdered. Today it is uncommon to find someone who knowingly allows their adolescent children to hitchhike across the country or sometime even walk to school on their own. The modern-day citizens of the United States of America lock their cars, their homes and even put their children on leashes. These safety precautions would seem ridiculous and silly to those born before the nineteen sixties. This over-zealous amount of safety and security can all be blamed on those who have abused the good and innocent nature that Americans have previously displayed. The beat generation stole and lied at such an increasing rate that present-day Americans must be cautious of each other and live in fear of the most despicable crimes. In the novel, On the Road by Jack Kerouac, the protagonists steal, lie and get high to fill the empty spaces in their schedule and to sooth the pains in their souls. It is through these actions that security develops and these malevolent ideas are exchanged to the youth that is living under this broke and battered generation. The beat generation, hurt by world war two, lost the trust for the average American citizen by stealing, abusing drugs and alcohol and creating broken families. The greed for others belonging and the lack of availability of wealth in the world has tempted all to steal and lie to gain for themselves. In the novel, On the Road, the protagonists are seen stealing gas, cigarettes and even cars. Dean, the narrator’s long-time friend has literally grown up on the wrong side of the tracks. His father being a bum and a drunk helped him learn how to steal and survive the cruel world that the homeless live in. â€Å"We stopped at a gas station, and there Dean and Marylou played piggyback around the tanks and Dunkel went inside and stole three packs of cigarettes without trying. We were fresh out† (Kerouac 139). Dunkel, another homeless hitchhiker is picked up by Dean, Sal and Marylou. He effortlessly steals cigarettes for them, displaying another act of theft by a homeless person. This act of theft shows the reader the lack of morality of the vagabonds in America. When any of the protagonists are confronted by the police it is at a moment in the novel when they are not breaking the law. â€Å"We had to follow the patrolman back to the station and there spent an hour waiting in the grass while they telephoned Chicago to get the owner of the Cadillac to verify our position as hired drivers. Mr. Baron said, according to the cop, ‘Yes, that is my car, but I can’t vouch for anything else those boys might have done. ’†¦Everything was straightened out and we roared on† (Kerouac 236) It is very lucky for Dean and Sal to never get into actual trouble with the cops when they are stopped by them, because they steal so much that with the modern day security system and police they would be instantly caught and hauled off to prison. It is with this lack of morality and their never-ending desires and addictions that the protagonists continue their travels, stealing and doping back and forth across America. Along with the sins of theft comes the crime of drug and alcohol abuse. Throughout the novel the protagonists drink heavily and experiment with marijuana, and Benzedrine. When the group of irresponsible citizens travels to Louisiana to visit Bull Lee they slowly damage their livers with Benzedrine. Bull Lee represents the â€Å"teacher† of the group, the one from whom they have learned their ways of life. It is to no surprise of the reader that Bull Lee is constantly strung out on Benzedrine. â€Å"That night Marylou took everything in the books; she took tea, goofballs, benny, and liquor and even asked Old Bull for a shot of M, which of course he didn’t give her; he gave her a martini. She was so saturated with elements of all kinds that she came to a standstill and stood goofy on the porch with me† (Kerouac 147-148). It is apparent that all of the protagonists abuse drugs and alcohol. This shows their need to get away from the world and leave their lives behind. Like the road, and hitchhiking, drugs help them run from their problems so that they can find happiness. This novel present’s drug and alcohol abuse as a very apparent trend in society. Because of World War Two the people of America have seen many gruesome and horrible sights, and therefore they find the need to distance themselves from society as a whole, so that they can numb the pain from their losses. It was believed for a long time that Kerouac wrote the novel On the Road while taking Benzedrine for the euphoric and creative feeling that it gave him. â€Å"For decades, in countless publications, Kerouac’s nineteen fifty-one typing session has been described as ‘Benzedrine-fueled’ and ‘Benzedrine –drenched’ and so on. This is not the likely case. In a private letter, Kerouac corrected Ginsberg when, years later, he wrote an article for Village Voice saying that Benzedrine boosted Kerouac’s typing feat. Kerouac told Ginsberg in definite terms that ‘Road was not written on benny, on coffee’ (Jack Kerouac Letter to Allen Ginsberg 184)† (Theado 15). It is not unreasonable for those to have questioned Kerouac’s sobriety during the times that he wrote On the Road. It is from this generation that we have learned that one can get high on simple prescription medicine. Along with the drugs the acts of theft can even be considered one of the ways that the protagonists create artificial euphoria for themselves. â€Å"†¦while they might steal to support their drug habits, for example, Dean ‘Stole cars for joyrides’ (Kerouac 10). The phrase â€Å"joy ride† must be understood quite literally as an experience of joy, and joy-spontaneous and unmanageable- seemed to be in scarce supply in the sad world Sal describes†(Holton 23). This sadness in the world that Sal describes, can, in their eyes, only be cured through frivolity, and mischief. Causing mayhem seems to be one of the few ways the characters in the novel can create happiness for themselves. Breaking the law makes them happy and due to this life of recklessness and law breaking, promiscuity and broken families are developed. Throughout the novel Dean and Sal sleep with many women, to satisfy their desire for feelings of euphoria. Dean is found at the end of the novel in his third marriage and having four children. Although Dean loves his children it is not enough for him to stay married to the mother of his children. Dean could not find happiness in his past marriage because he constantly feels the need to be free and unattached from the real world. This could easily be because of him being brought up in a broken family. This shows that because of peoples past lack of creating stable, conventional families, has developed an age where it is more uncommon to find a family where the husband and wife have only been married to each other. It is made clear that all of those around Dean find him irresponsible and even idiotic. Galatea brings this up to Dean by saying:†You have absolutely no regard for anybody but yourself and your damned kicks. All you think about is what’s hanging between your legs and how much money you can get out of people and then you just throw them aside†(Kerouac 194). It is most obvious that Dean is careless and reckless. This is represented by his indecency to not stay with his children and not support them until he is required, by law, to do so. His lack of stability in female acquaintances upsets his friends to the point of them not seeing him in any respected way. â€Å"Dean’s liaison with a third wife is in effect a double betrayal, a double failure. It is a betrayal of his comradely marriage to Sal, and a betrayal of the freedom of action and movement that goes with ’IT’† (Hunt 51). Dean’s promiscuity is commonly seen today, and is regarded as dangerous because of the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections. This spread of STI’s could even possibly be from the beat generation’s incredible sexual deviance. As time progresses life can only get harder for everyone because of the previous generation’s irresponsibility and carelessness. One would argue that it is irresponsible to blame anyone for society’s faults and dangers. As the human race progresses, so does its troubles. It is impossible to blame one generation for all of the troubles in America, but it is clear that the crime rate jumped after World War Two with the xplanation that breaking the law was the only way for people to find euphoria. Drug abuse and theft were, for the most part, under-the-rug subjects and not expected of the average person. Society has quickly learned that anyone can be a criminal and that it is better to be precautious of the worst crimes than to be left stunned and helpless from being too naive and trusting all. Today, The United States of America is plagued with criminals and offenders of the law so that the people have covered the country with security cameras, technological safety precautions and locked doors. The people of The United States of America have learned the hard way, to not trust their neighbors from the actions of the beat generation. It also was very unheard of to have a non-conventional family before the nineteen fifties. The divorce rate is at an all-time high, and it is because of the poor actions that people make with those around them. This was all sparked by the beat generation’s lustful relationships and impromptu marriages. The rise in promiscuity and the lack of desire to be responsible with sex post-World War Two gave the idea that it is ok to not be conventional to the future generations of America. Human beings learn from those around them, and it is not uncommon to find trends in vices through different generations in families. One’s poor decision, witnessed by youth, will likely be reflected in the future by the youth. It is with the knowledge that one’s present actions will affect the future of those around him or her that one should gain responsibility for the future. It is without a doubt that society in the United States of America has drastically changed since World War Two and even more so with the creation of the internet in the nineteen eighties. The beat generation has given society the burden of lack of trust. Through the actions of many, American society has gained the knowledge that any one person can be a criminal. Due to the abuse of drugs, and alcohol from the beat generation, it is not uncommon to find addicts and junkies throughout the streets. Society is not naive anymore to the abuse of prescription drugs and inhalers. Medicines that have helped many have been removed from modern medical practice because of those who abused them for euphoric experiences. Families are now commonly seen with variations in relations between siblings and without a traditional set of two parents. The divorce rate in The United States of America has increased to a magnanimous height. Promiscuous images are frequently seen on the television, in magazines, and on the internet. Children have grown to be unaffected by gruesome and sexual images. It is undeniable that stealing is looked down upon by many, but in the present United States of America, the children are no strangers to shoplifting. Society in America is losing its morality as time goes on. It is due to the inappropriate actions of past generations that the citizens of The United States of America have increased their security and distrust in people as a whole. The beat generation, especially, has disturbed the minds of the American people with its anarchist movements. One should ask him or herself why society is being constantly watched through security cameras, and why it is so hard to find a traditionally structured family, and why it is now dangerous to hitchhike.

On Identity, Amin Maalouf

On Identity, Amin Maalouf To Be and Not To Be. In this book, Amin Maalouf, discusses one of the most vital notions of the self; identity, in an analysis of historical and contemporary contexts aiming to reveal the misconceptions and abuses of this mode of recognition. Whether national, religious, ethnical or other, identity has been the prominent element and more than often the instigator of serious upheavals in the world. He examines how we have come to define ourselves and how certain modes of identification can be dangerous. Every time identity is determined on the basis of a single form of affiliation, danger arises, since this often leads to fanaticism, whose various shades appeared throughout history and continues to exist in time. He attributes this to an ill understanding of identity and an unnecessary paranoid attempt of its preservation. The two main themes of this work, religion and globalization, are corollary treated. The author provides a clarification of how these two affect and form one another. He addresses the matter of religion, by trying to deduce how it came to emerge as the focal proponent of identity in present times via a chain of questions, attempting to understand its significant universal reemergence. He proposes some answers, attributing this phenomenon to the descent of Communism and Marxism, for instance, and how this is a reaction to their emphasis on secularism. The author opposes the primacy of any kind of religious affiliation and calls upon a new element of association. He advocates the separation of church and identity, and affirms that this type of identifying affiliation ought to be replaced with a more humanistic one. He does not take a stance against religion per se, for he personally, as he explains, does not oppose religious affiliations and recognizes the perpetual significance of their nature. But as mentioned earlier he condemns the distraught tendency of shrinking identity down to one form of association. This regression of identity generates what he calls killer identities. I believe there exists another, similar form of regression, which he did not mention, one which I would call guilt identities .This is common among members of historically or currently exploited groups, who have developed a tendency to abuse such associations. Some Palestinians still do apply and obtain scholarships that were only assigned to their nationals at various higher educational institutions, for instance, when in fact they can afford to pay for the whole student body. Another example of this would be the Jews redundant reference to the Holocaust. This abuse and manipulation of history, I find to be highly despicable and disrespectful, for the only Jews that have all the right to refer to it I think are the ones who survived it. Similarly some African Americans use slavery or racism to justify their personal failure, which is absurd for while racial discrimination can definitely be the case in some instances, major inequalities that exist and persist are because of class and lack of opportunity. Then the author turns to the issue of globalization, describing the power of its disseminating nature. In this discussion, he explains that the reason for the reemergence of religion lies in its power to gratify two of the most basic human yearnings, the need of belonging and that of spirituality. At the same time, he argues that because of this religion is being ascribed as the antidote to globalization. The author presents a very sound analysis of religions ascent. However, his condemnation of the primacy of its affiliations appears simply irrational, for religion, like everything else, has its extremities, varying from fanaticism to apathy. It is these that tarnish its name, and it is these that should be condemned. Although I do acknowledge Maaloufs position and his attempt to reach a much more profound and comprehensive link of association, such as humanity, I still do find it rather idealistic, almost utopian. For even though it is the only common trait across the globe, humanity has seldom succeeded in uniting nations history is a vigilant witness of that. In spite of its significance, people have never treated humanity with high regards. I cannot conceive of a reason that would inspire them to acknowledge it now. I do agree that this human notion Maalouf proposes would be an ultimate global bliss, yet I do not think that the world is ready for it, given the state of chaos it is in now due to political systems, materialistic notions or simply apathy. This is precisely why I think that religion, when taken for what it really is, as opposed to a set of dogmatic customized interpretations, would serve as an absolute unifier, which ever religion it might well be I am no fanatic myself to state that my faith is the true one. We do not have to all ascribe to the same one (while that would be ideal, I am seeking to be reasonable). I know what faith is able to do to ones perception of life, and I do not think seeing the world through ones religion of choice turns a person into an extremist. Religion, when taken for what it really is, is the b elief in being a part or pertaining to something bigger than ones self, a system of tolerance and preservation of the most basic rights and dignity. It can only gratify the human in you and not the opposite. We are all in need of that kind of touch to our souls, otherwise our lives would be like frameless pictures, dull and fragile. In addressing the tangible battle between identity and globalization, the book demonstrates how this clash has constantly been disregarded as a normal reaction to change and hence not in fact been taken seriously. It advocates that we as individuals ought to take this with real concern, since we are to the most part, subconsciously engaged in it. Knowing who we are and where we stand is something we have come to take as evident, a conception that is shaken often times when an incident occurs, significantly altering things and putting us on sides we did not know existed. It is this very specific state of consciousness that this essay is aiming to stir. The author explains that ones heritage can be divided into two types, vertical and horizontal, and affirms that our horizontal heritages have more affect on us than we realize. That is to say, when considered objectively, one actually has more commonalities with his contemporaries than with his ancestors. This point is worth contemplati ng deeply, I believe, since we do, by convention or denial, tend to primarily, if not exclusively, identify ourselves by our vertical heritages. This notion of heritage incorporates the true essence of identity for people tend to often times presume that identity is something fixed that you get at birth and anything past that would be treated as treason. In fact, it is the actual opposite of that: identity is a constant state of evolution. The vertical heritage is what is bestowed upon us at birth and then everything else one encounters in his life will build up ones horizontal heritage. These levels should be recognized and understood so one could have a solid and healthy perception of himself for as Maalouf stated; it is necessary at this point in time to draw attention to the gulf that exists between what we are and what we think we are (Maalouf p.86) In their judgment of globalization, people should not forget that like any other medium, it is inherently neutral and holds the potentiality of both good and bad in it. Any medium is in a state of neutrality until used, and hence any condemnations of globalization would not only be groundless but ridiculous as well. The author attempts to demonstrate the potential good that globalization can bring; he believes that such a phenomenon can help create a universal identity. He explains this by asserting that the only primary feature of identity that should be grasped is humanity and that this is the only type of affiliation that would never shrivel the concept since it is what we all have in common, regardless of our differences. Hence, I believe, the paranoid notion that by accepting this undeniable bond, people will risk becoming less of the individuals that they are is absurd. This specific type of union is not exclusive in nature and therefore cannot possibly cause any sort of loss. This globaphobia, I believe, stems from basic human insecurities, for fear of the unknown instigates fear of the other, and fear of a universal identity is in reality a cling to existence. People will always try to distinguish themselves in order to prove their presence. When a group of different people meet, they usually identify themselves by nationalities , and when a group of the same nationalities meet, identification becomes on a regional basis and when those of the same region meet, it boils down to areas and neighborhoods. These sub-levels of identity go even deeper, since every individual is unique and will continue to defend that singularity whenever a presumed threat is perceived. Hence, although the human universal identity that Maalouf is advocating might seem to be too unrealistic a demand from the world at present, it seems to be the more objective approach to any chance of peace, for nothing is more certain and real than humanity in its true form. Everything else is in the realm of terms and actions where intentions and motives rule, giving the international arena a complex and slippery base. Humanity, on the other hand, is the only part of us that is irrefutable for one cannot merely pretend to be a human being! (One could argue that history has produced examples of certain exceptions to that, such as seemingly inhumane tyrants practicing brutal depravity on the human race, but these are of no significance to my argument). This human connection, that Maalouf advocates, I believe is indeed the deepest of connections, whose depth emanates from the fact that it shatters all trivial ties and is subtly effortless. It is an ability we all possess inherently by virtue of birth. And I believe that the reality of this was so adequately presented in this book. On Identity has undeniably enhanced my understanding of what identity really is, and has acquainted me with a couple of new theories as well, all while bringing into my consideration certain elements that I so plainly regarded as evident, I would definitely recommend it ,it was a pleasure to read.

Essay --

The life of a Greek is typically average. You go to school, get a job, find the person you want to marry... you know how it goes. All of this changes when you are describing one specific type of Greek, a â€Å"Karpathian†, who comes from a tiny little island in Greece called Karpathos. To most non-Greeks, Karpathos is barely a tourist attraction, as there are much bigger and more interesting islands found within the country. But to us Karpathians, few other places compare to its magnificence. What is troubling, however, is the complicated process of dating and marriage. This society of people take everything you thought you knew about relationships to a whole new level. Everyone who’s anyone in the Karpathian community knows that nothing compares to a summer in Karpathos. The beaches alone could easily persuade you never to leave. During the course of the summer, there are multiple weddings scattered across the island. Surprisingly, these weddings are the epitome of what it means to be Karpathian. What does it take to reach this climax of a Karpathian’s life, marriage, one might ask. Well I can assure you that this process is anything but simple. To start off, the young are groomed from birth to become the highest quality spouse. Boys are expected to be an excellent student and go to Karpathos every summer. The island is their place to shine, so being seen in ordinary clothes could potentially be a big mistake. It is recommended that you pack the best brands money can buy: Burberry, Lacoste, Ralph Lauren, etc. Furthermore, if the brand is not clearly visible, you might as well not wear the article of clothing at all. The girls of the island have standards that are just as important. Ten pounds of makeup is a given, i... ... could quite possibly be â€Å"What does love have to do with being able to show off all of your cool things during the summer?†. The concepts that go along with this strange charade have not changed all that much throughout the years, but the methods certainly have. With social media now and integral part of everyday-lives, maintaing your appearance has now turned into a year-long affair. Since the summer is not the only time your potential spouses will be seeing you, (even if it’s via social media) you must post the right things and carefully stage photo-ops. Instagram, Twitter, and other social media applications have become virtual extensions of summer socializing in Karpathos. Above all, reputation is key, guard it no matter what. You do not want to risk the island knowing you are actually a superficial person that is only interested in possessions, now you do?

Alzheimer’s Disease Essay -- Alzheimers Disease Essays

Alzheimer’s Association (2010) explains that Alzheimer’s disease is a brain’s disease which affects the way people think, remember and behave. Finally, people living with Alzheimer’s do not know themselves; do not able to perform everyday activities, which means that they always have to be under control. All of these are caused by improper function of the brain. This disease leads to the death. Nowadays, the 7th cause of death in United States of America is Alzheimer’s disease. There is no method of curing yet, but it was proved that life of people living with the disease and caregivers can become better if good care and aid are provided during the whole period of the illness (Alzheimer’s Association, 2010). It is obvious that Alzheimer’s disease has financial and psychological impact on individuals, caregivers and society. Nowadays 35.6 million people are sentenced that they have this disease. It is predicted that this number will increase to 65.7 million by 2030 and to 115.4 million by 2050 (Anders Wimo and Martin Prince, 2010, 4). There are direct and indirect costs which are spent on people with such kind of disease. The first one includes expenditures in social services such as treating at hospital. In other words, it requires a lot of money. According to Alzheimer’s Association (2008) the Medicare such as hospital services and the care of medical man to person with dementia is three times more than the money which is spent on someone without it. Indirect cost involves unpaid service of caregivers; many active days that the sufferer has lost, physical and psychological challenges with which a person living with Alzheimer’s disease and his family have to struggle (Fox and Max 2009,... ...rtant point to consider is providing support for caregivers. More attention must be paid in order to assist them in coping with problems which occur over time. Overall, it is obvious that Alzheimer’s disease is a problem that requires much attention from government and investors. One of the problems is supporting caregivers. In my opinion, in order to find solutions more researches have to be undertaken, also it is important to keep in mind that each of them is unique; their challenges are not the same and problems vary during the illness. Another major problem is increasing amount of money which is spent on dementia. It is mostly caused by increasing number of people with Alzheimer’s. Solutions for this problem are complicated. However, I think more research in pharmacology will obviously assists to find them, so huge amount of money can be saved.

Flappers and Mothers: New Women in the 1920s Essay -- American History

Flappers and Mothers: New Women in the 1920s Frederick Lewis Allen, in his famous chronicle of the 1920s Only Yesterday, contended that women’s â€Å"growing independence† had accelerated a â€Å"revolution in manners and morals† in American society (95). The 1920s did bring significant changes to the lives of American women. World War I, industrialization, suffrage, urbanization, and birth control increased women’s economic, political, and sexual freedom. However, with these advances came pressure to conform to powerful but contradictory archetypes. Women were expected to be both flapper and wife, sex object and mother. Furthermore, Hollywood and the emerging â€Å"science† of advertising increasingly tied conceptions of femininity to a specific standard of physical beauty attainable by few. By 1930, American women (especially affluent whites) had won newfound power and independence, but still lived in a sexist culture where their gender limited their opportunities and defined the ir place in society. World War I and industrialization both brought greater economic autonomy to American women. With immigration curtailed and hundreds of thousands of men needed for the armed forces, women’s labor became a wartime necessity. About 1.5 million women worked in paying jobs during the war, with many more employed as volunteers or secretaries and yeomen for the Army, Navy, and Marines (James and Wells, 66). Women retained few of those 1.5 million jobs after men returned from war, but the United States’ industrialized postwar economy soon provided enough work for men and women alike. Once confined to nursing, social work, teaching, or secretarial jobs, women began to find employment in new fields. According to Allen, â€Å"They ... ...r and a dutiful mother. Furthermore, large groups of American women were, by the basis of race or class, automatically excluded from the â€Å"new womanhood.† Despite significant advances, the decade of the 1920s ended much as it had began—American women, considered second-rate citizens, struggled to define femininity on their own terms. Works Cited Allen, Frederick Lewis. Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen- Twenties. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1931. D’Emilio, John and Estelle B. Freedman. Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. Goodman, James. Stories of Scottsboro. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. James, D. Clayton and Anne Sharp Wells. America and the Great War, 1914- 1920. Wheeling, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1998. H427 website: http://bss.sfsu.edu/tygiel/Hist427

Issues in Art Therapy with Children Essay

Art therapy is the therapeutic use of making art within a professional relationship, and the process involved in making art is healing and life-enhancing. In the early 1980s, the American Art Therapy Association (Levick, 1983, as cited in Newcomer, 1993) regarded art therapy as an opportunity for nonverbal expression and communication with the belief that the creative process of art is a means of reconciling emotional conflicts and of fostering self-awareness. The association later expanded their definition to read: â€Å"Art Therapy is a human service profession that utilizes art media, images, the creative art process and patient/client responses to the created products as reflections of an individual’s development, abilities, personality, interests, concerns and conflicts. Art experiences can provide an alternative to verbal forms of assessment and treatment† (American Art Therapy Association Newsletter, 1998). Kaplan (2000) reviewed the findings of other neuroscientists who noted that graphic representation is a complex activity, involving areas of the brain associated with language. For example, Restak (1994) reported that more brain neurons are devoted to vision than the other senses. Kaplan suggests that studio art can facilitate problem-solving abilities, stimulate pleasure and self-esteem, and provide opportunities for successful functioning in children and adults with cognitive impairments. Malchiodi (2003) cites studies by scientists who found that drawing involves complex interactions between many parts of the brain, and notes that science will be central to understanding how art therapy works and why it is a powerful therapeutic modality. Riley (2003) observed that offering opportunities to create art to depressed adolescents as a means of communication that can be enjoyed and controlled provides a lens for viewing their perceptions through their own images, as well as a vehicle for treatment and a way to address resistance. In addition, she finds drawingless confrontational, less familiar, and less judgmental than talk, and that adolescent depression is often masked. Teenagers may also be angry or aggressive, as opposed to the lassitude characteristic of depressed adults, and art-making can serve to relieve painful self-deprecation. Wadeson (1980) noted that drawings by patients experiencing depression showed less color, less affect, and less effort than the drawings of nondepressed individuals. In addition, they showed more empty space and more depressive affect, such as drawing about harming others. Silver & Ellison (1995) described the behavior and history of a 16-year-old who had been arrested and incarcerated for stabbing another youth with a pencil. His history included a volatile temper and it was feared that he might harm others. His father had disappeared and his mother had been killed in a gang-related incident. During his stay in the facility, he was placed on suicide watch, and then was disciplined for angry acting-out. Three weeks after his release, he committed suicide. Advantages of Art Therapy vs. Traditional Verbal Therapy for Children Many studies performed by therapist-researchers have been chosen to focus on art therapy in particular because of the expressive arts benefit of allowing children a nonverbal outlet for their feelings. However, because art therapy is a relatively new modality, there is a minimal amount of research that has been conducted to support its efficacy or usefulness. Therefore, traditionally there has been less acceptance of it as a viable treatment option. Due to this belief, it is important to point out the many advantages of conducting art therapy to treat a wide spectrum of mental illnesses, from severe disorders such as schizophrenia to mild behavioral disorders. There are many therapeutic advantages to this particular type of therapy. Pre-adolescent children often have difficulty expressing their thoughts and feelings verbally. Children’s linguistic and cognitive skills are not fully developed, which limits their verbal expression. Because art therapy involves nonverbal communication, it is useful with this age population whose developmental limitations prevent the level of participation often required in verbal therapy (Newcomer, 1993). Instead of words, the image created by the child is the symbolic representation of a feeling, event, wish, etc. This form of preverbal expression and preverbal thinking does not require translation because it is depicted in image form. For children who are not able to make the translation, art is used as a vehicle for expression rather than words (Newcomer, 1993). Another advantage of art therapy is that the image produced can serve as a catalyst for verbal expression. This image then provides the child with structure and a foundation in an attempt to explain or describe the production (Newcomer, 1993). Many children suffer from low self-esteem and low self-confidence. When a child participates in art therapy activities and can master the materials and projects, it provides an opportunity for the child to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. Many of the participants in the present study suffer from a poor self-image and low self-esteem and confidence. Children, particularly in violent neighborhoods, often feel a lack of control over the unpredictable and unstable environment in which they are living. Therefore, it is important to gain mastery of a task, which helps build a feeling of control. Art projects can serve to do this. Art therapy is advantageous to traditional talk therapy in that it helps to provide a socially acceptable opportunity for expression and is relatively nonthreatening, whereas verbal therapy can carry a stigma. Many individuals, both children and adults, suffer from the stigma of being in therapy. Reducing or eliminating this negative stigma can serve to enhance the therapy (Newcomer, 1993). Art therapy provides a forum where children are able to freely express emotion when discussing their artwork without fear of violating social norms. Another benefit of art therapy is the social component that can be worked into the session if providing group art therapy. By working on group projects and sharing materials, it helps develop interpersonal relationships and fosters cooperation (Newcomer, 1993). At the Lake School’s Insight Through Art Program, all children in the groups share materials and at times engage in group projects. Another advantage of art therapy that has been noted is the decrease in energy level that occurs during the creative process (Newcomer, 1993). Individuals in art therapy are still stimulated as in talk therapy, but in a different way that provides greater relaxation. Many of the children at the Lake School are hyperactive, anxious, and overly excited. Working on an art project provides structure, containment, and limit setting that helps to calm children down. Art can also have the reverse effect on depressed, introverted children. Art and art-making can help stimulate these individuals and increase participation in therapy and decrease inhibition. A disadvantage of verbal therapy is that when working verbally, individuals can stop and filter thoughts and feelings (Wadeson, 1980). It is easier to control and tame your words then your art. This editing can slow down the therapeutic process. Harriet Wadeson lists objectification as another advantage. This term is based on the premise that art expression can form a bridge. Objectification is the notion that â€Å"feelings or ideas are at first externalized in an object (picture or sculpture). The art object allows the individual, while separating from the feelings, to recognize their existence† (Wadeson, 1980, p. 10). Hopefully, the individual can then come to own his or her feelings and integrate them into the self. When in art therapy, the individual is left with a tangible object that can be taken with him or her after the therapy has ended (Wadeson, 1980). In verbal therapy, there are no tangible products. The object(s) is symbolic of the work done in treatment and can also serve as a reminder of skills learned. The person then has a reminder of work done, which is especially beneficial for children. The picture or sculpture is not subject to distortions of memory. An additional advantage of having a tangible product is that it is easier to recall and notice emerging patterns. A therapist and the client can derive a sense of ongoing development that occurs in the therapeutic process. The art object provides documentation that is a direct statement by the patient, not filtered by the therapist (Wadeson, 1980). A final noted advantage is that art taps into primary process thinking and allows the child to process the event without the censorship or inhibitions of secondary process thinking. Literature Review of Art Therapy Research Art therapy programs, unlike traditional doctoral programs in psychology, have not emphasized empirical research. Students studying art therapy enter the field because they tend to be more interested in the clinical work rather than in conducting research. Many programs, though this began changing in the 1980s, do not offer the foundational courses in research design. Given this focus, the field of art therapy lacks the research studies that utilize quantifiable data. Therefore, much of the research regarding the efficacy of art therapy has been case studies. Many prolific writers in the field have written about the lack of art therapy research (McNiff, 1998a, Rosal, 1998; Malchiodi, 1995). â€Å"As a relatively new discipline we have yet to ‘advance’ to the stage where professional researchers separate the process of investigation from the ‘the practice of the craft† (McNiff, 1998a, p. 86). Many art therapists struggle with the more traditionally acceptable research procedures. Creative research methods seem to lend themselves better to studying this unique field because in enables the researcher a better opportunity to provide evidence regarding the process of therapeutic change. To show the changes that occur after the course of art therapy, many practitioner-researchers try to let the artistic products speak for themselves, coupled with a description of how the client moved through the process and experience of art therapy. â€Å"The practice of art therapy generates a desire to ‘show’ data on the part of both participants and therapists. The presentation of imagery is a natural extension of the therapeutic process and a primary feature of artistic activity† (McNiff, 1998b, p. 93). To date, it was difficult to find studies that investigated behavioral changes occurring after the introduction of a school-based group art-therapy program. However, there is research that addresses other changes art therapy can bring about. Rosal, McCulloch-Vislisel, and Neece (1997) conducted an art therapy pilot study in an urban high school with ninth-grade students. The program goal was to improve attitudes about school, relationships, and life; decrease the number of failing grades; and keep students from dropping out of school. Results of this study indicated that the art therapy, in conjunction with the English curriculum, had a positive effect on the subjects. The investigators found that the participants stayed in school, failed a very small number of courses, and improved their attitude about school, family, and self. Another study, conducted by Jasenke Roje (1995), utilized art therapy with latency age children who were victims of the 1994 Los Angeles earthquake. Roje found art therapy to be an effective and successful treatment modality in the recovery of earthquake trauma. â€Å"It enabled children to express internal processes which they had no verbal awareness of and it facilitated working through the defenses in order to identify underlying conflicts which hindered recovery† (Roje, 1995, p. 243). Rosal (1993) investigated the use of art therapy to modify the locus of control and adaptive classroom behavior of children with behavior disorders. Subjects were fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students living in a poor urban area in a large city. Most of the children came from unstable families. All subjects were identified as having behavioral difficulties at school and poor peer relationships. Results of this study were not statistically significant, however, Rosal noted change in the subjects. One of the measures Rosal utilized was The Children’s Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Locus of Control (CNS-D3) measure. She found that although there were no statistically significant results, both experimental groups made greater moves toward the norm of the CNS-IE than the control groups. A second measure used in this study was the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (TRS). Results indicated that the two art therapy treatment conditions showed significant differences in changes of diagnosis on the TRS. Both art therapy treatment conditions were more effective than the control group in helping the behavior disordered students improve. Seventy-five percent of the subjects in one of the treatment conditions showed an improved diagnosis on the TRS and 67% showed improved diagnosis in the other treatment condition. The third and final measure that Rosal used in this study was a personal construct drawing interview (PCDI) that was developed specifically for this study to measure changes in self-perception. The students in both art therapy treatment conditions showed an increase in positive attitudes, whereas no major change was noted in the control group. In conclusion, Rosal’s study suggests that art therapy may be an effective modality in helping children with behavior disorders increase levels of control. Pleasant-Metcalf and Rosal (1997) utilized a single-case study research design in a school setting to study the effectiveness of individual art therapy with a 12-year-old girl whose academic performance declined following the divorce of her parents. Evidence in this pilot study suggests that school-based art therapy was effective in helping increase academic performance. This study adds to the growing body of literature supporting the notion that art therapy is an important school-based service and can positively impact academic performance. Avidar (1995) explored through two case studies how art therapy can address treatment needs of children who experience pervasive trauma. The subjects in Avidar’s study, much like the ones in the current study, reside in a violent inner-city housing project in a major metropolitan city. Avidar found that art therapy proves to address the psychological needs of individuals who experience chronic trauma. â€Å"[Art therapy] provides distance, expression, mastery, control, and above all, safety and trust† (Avidar, 1995, p. 16). Omizo and Omizo (1989) used art activities with minority children aged 8 to 11 to help improve self-esteem. It is well documented that poor self-esteem, feelings of incompetence, worthlessness, hopelessness, powerlessness, and feelings of inadequacy contribute to delinquency, substance abuse, unemployment, unrealized potential, poor achievement, and involvement with crime (Roundtree, 1979 and Shaplen, 1982, as cited in Omizo & Omizo, 1989). As in Omizo and Omizo’s study, the children in the current study face the aforementioned feelings and problems. Children in the Omizo study were assigned to an experimental group or a control group and were pre- and post-tested using The Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory for Children (SEI) to measure self-esteem. Results on the post-test indicated a significant difference between the experimental and control group. The minority children who participated in group counseling that utilized art activities had significantly higher social peer-related and academics/school-related self-esteem. Application of Art Therapy in Counseling Children Historically, therapy has been provided in private offices, hospitals, and community clinics. Traditionally, schools have been viewed narrowly as places to educate. Now that we have entered the 21st century, an expanded notion of the function of the school needs to be considered. Schools are not just the place where students learn academic material; schools also shape students’ psychological well-being, especially in poor urban neighborhoods where there are few resources available to families. Schools are the primary institutions where children gather, and as such, they provide an excellent setting in which to deliver effective services to children in need. Individuals and families may not be able to obtain services if they are required to go to an office-based treatment setting. School-based services can provide a solution to the problem of children not being independently mobile and having to rely on a family member, guardian, or some other adult to take them to therapy. Schools are â€Å"where the children are. We have to take the service to them, rather than expect them to come to us† (McNiff, 1997). This is especially the case when working with disadvantaged, at-risk children. There are a multitude of factors that may lead to a lack of participation in treatment. It is often not a lack of desire or motivation for treatment, but rather a confounding situation. Disadvantaged families usually do not have a reliable source of transportation. Therefore, it makes it very difficult to make a scheduled session that possibly is miles away, outside of their community. Another problem with children receiving services outside of the school is that they have to rely on an adult to get them there. Parents in poor urban settings are often disenfranchised by the system and may lack the motivation to get their child to treatment. In addition, there may be crises that arise and other children whose parents or guardians are caring for that make it difficult to get to scheduled appointments. However, with school-based interventions, if the child attends class, he or she is able to receive treatment without relying on an adult to provide transportation. The school is therefore a more effective place to reach children more consistently. The earlier the intervention, the more likely it is that one can eradicate and reshape unhealthy behaviors among children. The longer the behavior continues, the more difficult it is to extinguish. By meeting the needs of children in a school setting, there is a greater chance of targeting and changing negative behaviors at an early stage. There are numerous advantages to school-based treatments when compared to more traditional settings. There is a push for briefer treatments in which the patient takes a more active role in the therapeutic process. In addition, there is no longer the belief that one type of treatment is appropriate for all presenting problems. Art therapy in the public schools is an alternative approach to a variety of problems, one that is both active and brief. The therapy takes place when school is in session; therefore, the school calendar dictates treatment to only be a certain length of time. Another advantage is that the therapist, by being in the school, is part of the school system and climate and has an opportunity to â€Å"gauge the general social climate that is impinging on the child† (Nicol, 1979, p. 83). The therapist can witness the child interacting with peers and teachers and identify problematic social relationships and social skills that are causing difficulties for the child. Providing treatment in a familiar environment is linked to clients remaining in treatment. The school is a very familiar environment for children, thus increasing the chances that the child will remain in treatment. A final advantage of the school-based setting is the collaboration that can occur amongst professionals (Nicol, 1979). Teachers do not receive the necessary training on how to handle children with behavioral problems. The school-based therapist can serve as a resource for the teachers and school staff, providing consultations and in-school workshops. Given the central role that schools play in the lives of children, we need to expand upon this by not only educating children on subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but also help to foster positive self-esteem and emotional and cognitive growth. In addition, schools also should help children build interpersonal relationship skills and help students to develop positive behaviors. By broadening the definition and role the school plays beyond academic success, children will have a greater chance of success and a larger set of skills necessary to make it in the outside world. Most of the literature on art therapy in schools represents work that is taking place in specialized settings, not urban public schools. â€Å"The severity of problems that children bring into school settings is rising dramatically. Violence, sexual abuse, suicide, substance abuse, poverty, and the decay of family and community structures are just some of the numerous issues affecting children today† (Essex, Frostig, & Hertz, 1996, p. 182). Children bring these problems into the classroom and schools are left with the responsibility to handle these grave situations. When a child is in distress, it interferes with the child’s ability to learn. In 1990, a decision by the Supreme Court of New Jersey emphasized the critical need for public school support of these issues. There have been several other legislative initiatives that focus on the benefits of creative art therapies to help individuals who do not respond to more traditional therapies. â€Å"The Senate and House Report (No. 96-712, May 18, 1980) on the Mental Health Systems Act of 1980 gave special attention to the creative arts therapies in the treatment of persons who required mental health services but who did not respond to traditional therapeutic modalities† (Bush, 1997b, p. 10). Janet Bush (1997a) introduced the first comprehensive art therapy program in a public school in Dade County, Florida during the 1979-1980 school year which still exists today. Other art therapy programs have been started in the United States, but they are not as extensive as Dade County and have developed differently. Initially, the goal of the pilot program in Dade County was to provide art therapy for students with physical, emotional, educational, and psychological problems â€Å"to ameliorate a variety of unacceptable behaviors and to help the students learn by improving students’ insights, attitudes, and skills† (Bush, 1997a, p. 9). Eventually, the program narrowed its focus to only include students with emotional problems. While obtaining her graduate degree in art therapy, Bush recognized how students’ problems were directly and indirectly affecting their educational goals. By introducing art therapy in the school, she hoped to assist the children in problem resolution by providing tools to foster self-expression and emotional and cognitive growth. In 1999, the Bade County school district employed 20 Mi-time art therapists to work in 28 public schools. (Minato, 1999, p. 59). As the art therapy program grew and developed, other professionals (psychologists, social workers, family therapists, and teachers) joined the treatment team. At first, the program combined art education along with art therapy. This was due to the fact that the original funding for the program came from the art education department. In 1995, the program shifted away from art education and started focusing entirely on clinical art therapy objectives with severely emotionally disturbed children (Bush, 1997a). The activities the school art therapists provided were very comprehensive. They included: consultation, assessment, intervention, professional training and development, research, program planning, and evaluation (Bush, 1997b). Although the Dade County school-based art therapy program has been a success, its success has been measured by observation and experiences of the therapists. This program, along with most school-based art therapy programs, lacks the documentation to support empirical research. The Dade County program has continued to prosper since its commencement in 1979, but empirical research supporting it is minimal (Bush, 1997b). Art therapy in schools, however, has not taken root. It is time for controlled research and documentation on the application of art therapy in schools. Relevant outcome criteria on the effectiveness of art therapy in treating students and the effects of participation on a school’s team should be reported. (Bush, 1997a, p. 13) The Dade County art therapy program is a model program, which can serve to inspire future development of similar school-based art therapy programs. Art therapy in a school-based setting can provide at-risk children with an outlet to work through obstacles that are hindering their educational, emotional, and social growth. Conclusion Behavioral science research has focused on the psychological, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive problems that children exposed to chronic stress and violence face. Research in this area has become increasingly prolific as the rates of violence and risk of exposure increases. This is especially true in large urban cities where the prevalence rate of urban youth exposed to violence and chronic stress is rapidly increasing. There are many factors in the lives of impoverished African-American children that lead to chronic stress. Rutter (1978) identified six significant familial stressors that increased the probability of behavioral disorders among children. They are: (a) the father having an unskilled/semiskilled job, (b) overcrowding in the home or a large family size, (c) the mother suffering from depression or a neurotic disorder, (d) the child having ever been â€Å"in care,† (e) the father having been convicted of any offense against the law, and (f) marital discord (Rutter, 1978). Other researchers examined multiple stressors on school-aged children’s psychological functioning: parental conflict, maternal depression, overcrowding, and family income. Shaw and Emery found that â€Å"cumulative family stressors predicted clinically-elevated child behavior problems and below-average ratings of children’s IQ and perceived social competence† (1988, p. 204). The research suggests there is a significant relationship between exposure to chronic stress, crime, and violence and behavioral, psychological, and academic problems. It is necessary to then take the next step and focus on ways in which to ameliorate these negative effects. Traditionally, psychological services of art therapy have been provided in hospitals, community mental health centers, and private offices. There are, however, numerous factors that impede the ability of at-risk children from getting these needed services that are often provided outside their community. School-based interventions in art therapy can provide one solution to this problem. School-based therapeutic interventions have been effective in helping children to deal with the emotional repercussions of living with multiple stressors. By addressing common problems in a novel way, school-based art therapy therapy opens the doors to many children who otherwise would not receive the needed therapeutic help. The children are in their schools everyday, so why not bring the service to them. Outcome literature supports the notion that school-based intervention programs in art therapy can yield to positive outcomes in the lives of children. References Art therapy: Definition of profession. (1998, Summer). American Art Therapy Association Newsletter, 31, 3. Avidar, A. (1995). Art therapy and pervasive trauma: Working with children in violent communities. Pratt Institute Creative Arts Therapy Review, 16, 10-16. Bush, J. (1997a). The development of school art therapy in Dade County public schools: Implications for future change. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 14(l 9-14. Bush, J. (1997b). The handbook of school art therapy. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. Essex, M. , Frostig, K. , & Hertz, J. (1996). In the service of children: Art and expressive therapies in public schools. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 73(2), 181-190. Malchiodi, C. A. (1995). Does a lack of art therapy research hold us back? Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 12(4), 218-219. Malchiodi, C. A. (2003). Art therapy and the brain. In C. A. Malchiodi (Ed. ), Handbook of art therapy. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 16-24 McNiff, S. (1997). Art therapy: A spectrum of partnerships. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 24, 37-44. McNiff, S. (1998a). Enlarging the vision of art therapy research. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 15(2), 86-92. McNiff, S. (1998b). Art-based research. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Ltd. Kaplan, F. F. (2000). Art, science, and art therapy. London: Jessica Kingsley. Minato, Laura. (1999). Book Review. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 26(1), 59-60. Nader, K. , & Pynoos, R. S. (1991). Play and drawing techniques as tools for interviewing traumatized children. In C. E. Schaefer, K. Gitlin, & A. Sandgrund (Eds. ), Play diagnosis and assessment (pp. 375-389). New York: Wiley. Newcomer, P. (1993). Art, Music, and Dance Therapy. In P. Newcomer (Ed. ), Understanding and teaching emotionally disturbed adolescents (pp. 515-553). Austin, TX: Pro-ed. Nicol, AR. (1979). Psychotherapy and the school. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 20, 81-86. Omizo, M. M. , & Omizo, S. A. (1989). Art Activities to improve self-esteem among native Hawaiian children. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 27(3), 167- 176. Pleasant-Metcalf, A. M. , & Rosal. M. L. (1997). The use of art therapy to improve academic performance. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 14(1), 23-29. Restak, R. M. (1994). The modular brain. New York: Scribner. Riley, S. (2003). Using art therapy to address adolescent depression. In C. Malchiodi (Ed.), Handbook of art therapy. New York: Guilford Press. Roje, J. (1995). LA ’94 earthquake in the eyes of children: Art therapy with elementary school children who were victims of disaster. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 12(4), 237-243. Rosal, M. L. (1998). Research thoughts: Learning from the literature and from experience. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 15(1), 47-50. Rosal, M. L. , McCulloch-Vislisel, S. , & Neece, S. (1997). Keeping students in school: An art therapy program to benefit ninth-grade students. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 14(1), 30-36. Rutter, M. (1978). Family, area, and school influences in the genesis of conduct disorder. In L. A. Hersov & D. Schaffer (Eds. ), Aggression and anti-social behavior in childhood and adolescence (pp. 95-114) Oxford: Pergamon Press. Silver, R. , and Ellison, J. (1995). Identifying and assessing self-images in drawings by delinquent adolescents. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 22, 339-352. Wadeson, H. (1980). Art psychotherapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.